– The International Classification of Diseases is the international standard diagnostic tool for epidemiology, health management and clinical purposes. Its full official name is International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, the ICD is maintained by the World Health Organization, the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations System. This system is designed to map health conditions to corresponding generic categories together with variations, assigning for these a designated code. Thus, major categories are designed to include a set of similar diseases, the ICD is published by the WHO and used worldwide for morbidity and mortality statistics, reimbursement systems, and automated decision support in health care. This system is designed to promote international comparability in the collection, processing, classification, like the analogous Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the ICD is a major project to statistically classify all health disorders, and provide diagnostic assistance. The ICD is a statistically based classificatory diagnostic system for health care related issues of the WHO Family of International Classifications. The ICD is revised periodically and is currently in its tenth revision, ICD-10, as it is therefore known, is from 1992 and the WHO publishes annual minor updates and triennial major updates. ICD-11 was planned for 2017, but has pushed back to 2018. Blickbewegungen der Versuchsteilnehmer zu den kritischen Bildern auf dem Monitor aufgenommen, bevor das. Languages (e.g., Grainger & Beauvillain, 1988), semantically related and translation primes. Negativen Ausschlag der EEG-Kurve 400 ms nach dem Zielwort-Ansatz im neutralen Kontext im Vergleich zum. Data will be presented to demonstrate how these neuroscience based models and empirical findings might be translated to the clinic and thus. Studien an Erwachsenen mit kindlichen Misshandlungserfahrungen verweisen auf zahlreiche. Erfragt, sowie der Ausschlag des Joysticks, den die Proban. Viral Exanthem ist eine unangenehme Infektion der Haut, die viele Erwachsene und Kinder auf der ganzen Welt beeinflusst. Virale Infektion Ausschlag Bilder. In 1893, a French physician, Jacques Bertillon, introduced the Bertillon Classification of Causes of Death at a congress of the International Statistical Institute in Chicago. Subsequent revisions represented a synthesis of English, German, and Swiss classifications, in 1898, the American Public Health Association recommended that the registrars of Canada, Mexico, and the United States also adopt it. The APHA also recommended revising the system every ten years to ensure the system remained current with medical practice advances, as a result, the first international conference to revise the International Classification of Causes of Death took place in 1900, with revisions occurring every ten years thereafter. At that time, the system was contained in one book. The book was compared with current coding texts. The revisions that followed contained minor changes, until the revision of the classification system. With the sixth revision, the system expanded to two volumes. The sixth revision included morbidity and mortality conditions, and its title was modified to reflect the changes, in 1948, the WHO assumed responsibility for preparing and publishing the revisions to the ICD every ten years. WHO sponsored the seventh and eighth revisions in 1957 and 1968 and it later become clear that the established ten year interval between revisions was too short. The ICD is currently the most widely used classification system for diseases in the world 2. – Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population 3. – The glans penis is the sensitive bulbous structure at the distal end of the human penis. The glans is anatomically homologous to the glans of the human female. Typically, the glans is completely or partially covered by the foreskin, the foreskin can generally be retracted over and past the glans, and may automatically retract during an erection. The glans is more known as the head or the tip of the penis. The medical name comes from the Latin words glans and penis – the Latin genitive of this word has the form as the nominative. The meatus of the urethra is located at the tip of the glans penis, the epithelium of the glans penis is mucocutaneous tissue. Birley et al. Report that excessive washing with soap may dry the membrane that covers the glans penis. Inflammation of the penis is known as balanitis. It occurs in 3–11% of males, and up to 35% of diabetic males, edwards reported that it is generally more common in males who have poor hygiene habits or have not been circumcised. It has many causes, including irritation, or infection with a variety of pathogens. Careful identification of the cause with the aid of patient history, physical examination, swabs and cultures, the glans penis is the expanded cap of the corpus spongiosum. It is moulded on the ends of the corpora cavernosa penis. At the summit of the glans is the vertical external urethral orifice. The circumference of the base of the forms a rounded projecting border. The proportional size of the penis can vary greatly. On some penises it is wider in circumference than the shaft, giving the penis a mushroom-like appearance. The foreskin maintains the mucosa in a moist environment, in males who have been circumcised, the glans is permanently exposed and dry. Szabo and Short found that the glans of a circumcised penis does not develop a thicker keratinization layer, several studies have suggested that the glans is equally sensitive in circumcised and uncircumcised males, while others have reported that it is more sensitive in males who are not circumcised 4. – Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek 5. – Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology, There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants, Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In March 2013, data reported by researchers in October 2012, was published and it was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, You can find microbes everywhere—theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, the vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy. The most common fatal diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. Once regarded as constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and these evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, for about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota, however, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea, here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea 6. – Staphylococcus is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria. Under the microscope, they appear round, and form in grape-like clusters, the Staphylococcus genus includes at least 40 species. Of these, nine have two subspecies, one has three subspecies, and one has four subspecies, most are harmless and reside normally on the skin and mucous membranes of humans and other organisms. Found worldwide, they are a component of soil microbial flora. Succinus As with all names in binomial nomenclature, Staphylococcus is capitalized when used alone or with a specific species. Also, the abbreviations Staph and S. When used with a species are correctly italicized and capitalized, however, Staphylococcus is not capitalized or italicized when used in adjectival forms, as in a staphylococcal infection, or as the informal plural. Saprophyticus and S. Sciuri groups are generally novobiocin-resistant, members of the S. Sciuri group are oxidase-positive due to their possession of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase. This group is the only clade within the staphylococci to possess this gene, the S. Sciuri group appears to be the closest relations to the genus Macrococcus. Pulvereri has been shown to be a synonym of S. Within these clades, the S. Haemolyticus and S. Simulans groups appear to be related, as do the S. Lugdunensis appears to be related to the S. Haemolyticus group. Petrasii may be related to S. Haemolyticus, the taxonomic position of S. Pettenkoferi, S. Petrasii, and S. Pseudolugdunensis has yet to be clarified. The published descriptions of species do not appear to have been validly published. Staphylococcus species can be differentiated from other aerobic and facultative anaerobic, all species grow in the presence of bile salts. All species were thought to be coagulase-positive, but this has since been disproven. Growth can also occur in a 6. 5% NaCl solution, on Baird Parker medium, Staphylococcus species grow fermentatively, except for S. Saprophyticus, which grows oxidatively. Staphylococcus species are resistant to bacitracin and susceptible to furazolidone, further biochemical testing is needed to identify to the species level. When these bacteria divide, they do so along two axes, so form clumps of bacteria and this is as opposed to streptococci, which divide along one axis, so form chains. One of the most important phenotypical features used in the classification of staphylococci is their ability to produce coagulase, six species are currently recognised as being coagulase-positive, S. Intermedius, S. – Mycobacterium is a genus of Actinobacteria, given its own family, the Mycobacteriaceae. There are over 150 recognised species in this genus and this genus includes pathogens known to cause serious diseases in mammals, including tuberculosis and leprosy in humans. The Greek prefix myco- means fungus, alluding to the way mycobacteria have been observed to grow in a fashion on the surface of cultures. Mycobacteria are aerobic and nonmotile bacteria that are acid fast. They do not have capsules, and most do not form endospores, Mycobacterium marinum and perhaps M. Bovis have been shown to sporulate, however, this has been contested by further research. The distinguishing characteristic of all Mycobacterium species is that the wall is thicker than in many other bacteria, being hydrophobic, waxy. The cell wall consists of the hydrophobic layer and a peptidoglycan layer held together by a polysaccharide. The cell wall makes a contribution to the hardiness of this genus. The biosynthetic pathways of cell components are potential targets for new drugs for tuberculosis. Many Mycobacterium species adapt readily to growth on very simple substrates, using ammonia or amino acids as nitrogen sources, optimum growth temperatures vary widely according to the species and range from 25 °C to over 50 °C. Most Mycobacterium species, including most clinically relevant species, can be cultured in blood agar, in addition, the availability of genetic manipulation techniques still lags far behind that of other bacterial species. A natural division occurs between slowly– and rapidly–growing species, Mycobacteria that form colonies clearly visible to the naked eye within seven days on subculture are termed rapid growers, while those requiring longer periods are termed slow growers. Mycobacteria cells are straight or slightly curved rods between 0.2 and 0.6 µm wide and between 1.0 and 10 µm long, some mycobacteria produce carotenoid pigments without light. Others require photoactivation for pigment production, photochromogens Produce nonpigmented colonies when grown in the dark and pigmented colonies only after exposure to light and reincubation. Simiae, scotochromogens Produce deep yellow to orange colonies when grown in the presence of either the light or the dark. Scrofulaceum, M. Xenopi, non-chromogens Nonpigmented in the light and dark or have only a pale yellow, buff or tan pigment that does not intensify after light exposure. Tuberculosis, M. Avium-intra-cellulare, M. Ulcerans Ex, M. Fortuitum, stains used in evaluation of tissue specimens or microbiological specimens include Fites stain, Ziehl-Neelsen stain, and Kinyoun stain. Mycobacteria appear phenotypically most closely related to members of Nocardia, Rhodococcus, Mycobacteria are widespread organisms, typically living in water and food sources 8. – Candida is a genus of yeasts and is the most common cause of fungal infections worldwide. Many species are harmless commensals or endosymbionts of hosts including humans, however, Candida albicans is the most commonly isolated species, and can cause infections in humans and other animals. In winemaking, some species of Candida can potentially spoil wines, many species are found in gut flora, including C. Albicans in mammalian hosts, whereas others live as endosymbionts in insect hosts. Systemic infections of the bloodstream and major organs, particularly in immunocompromised patients, the genome of several Candida species has been sequenced. Antibiotics promote yeast infections, including gastrointestinal Candida overgrowth, and penetration of the GI mucosa, while women are more susceptible to genital yeast infections, men can also be infected. Certain factors, such as prolonged antibiotic use, increase the risk for both men and women, people with diabetes or impaired immune systems, such as those with HIV, are more susceptible to yeast infections. Candida antarctica is a source of industrially important lipases, when grown in a laboratory, Candida appears as large, round, white or cream colonies, which emit a yeasty odor on agar plates at room temperature. Albicans ferments glucose and maltose to acid and gas, sucrose to acid, and does not ferment lactose, recent molecular phylogenetic studies show that the genus Candida as currently used is extremely polyphyletic. Before the advent of molecular methods, yeasts that were isolated from infected patients were often called Candida without clear evidence of relationship to other Candida species. For example, Candida glabrata, Candida guilliermondii, and Candida lusitaniae are clearly misclassified, some species of Candida use a non-standard genetic code in the translation of their nuclear genes into the amino acid sequences of polypeptides. The difference in the code between species possessing the alternative code is that the codon CUG is translated by the yeast as a different amino acid. The alternative translation of the CUG codon in these species is due to a nucleic acid sequence in the serine-tRNA. In all other tRNAs, this position is occupied by a pyrimidine. This genetic code change is the only such known alteration in cytoplasmic mRNA, albicans is part of the normal flora of the mucous membranes of the respiratory, gastrointestinal and female genital tracts. The dryness of skin compared to other tissues prevents the growth of the fungus, oral candidiasis is common in elderly denture wearers. In otherwise healthy individuals, these infections can be cured with topical or systemic antifungal medications, C. Albicans has been used in combination with carbon nanotubes to produce stable electrically conductive bio-nano-composite tissue materials that have been used as temperature sensing elements. Yet, there is an incidence of infections caused by C. Glabrata and C. Other medically important species include C. Parapsilosis, C. Tropicalis, other Candida species, such as C. Oleophila have been used as biological control agents in fruit 9. – The classical signs of inflammation are heat, pain, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Inflammation is a response, and therefore it is considered as a mechanism of innate immunity, as compared to adaptive immunity. Too little inflammation could lead to tissue destruction by the harmful stimulus. In contrast, chronic inflammation may lead to a host of diseases, such as hay fever, periodontitis, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Inflammation is therefore normally closely regulated by the body. Inflammation can be classified as acute or chronic. Acute inflammation is the response of the body to harmful stimuli and is achieved by the increased movement of plasma. A series of biochemical events propagates and matures the inflammatory response, involving the vascular system, the immune system. Inflammation is not a synonym for infection, Inflammation on the other hand describes purely the bodys immunovascular response, whatever the cause may be. But because of how often the two are correlated, words ending in the suffix -itis are sometimes described as referring to infection. There are also situations where microbial invasion does not result in classic inflammatory response—for example, parasitosis. Acute inflammation is a process, usually appearing within a few minutes or hours. It involves a coordinated and systemic mobilisation response locally of various immune, endocrine, in a normal healthy response, it becomes activated, clears the pathogen and begins a repair process and then ceases. It is characterized by five signs, An acronym that may be used to remember the key symptoms is PRISH, for pain, redness, immobility, swelling. Loss of function has multiple causes, Acute inflammation of the lung does not cause pain unless the inflammation involves the parietal pleura, which does have pain-sensitive nerve endings. PAMPs are compounds that are associated with pathogens, but which are distinguishable from host molecules. DAMPs are compounds that are associated with host-related injury and cell damage, at the onset of an infection, burn, or other injuries, these cells undergo activation and release inflammatory mediators responsible for the clinical signs of inflammation. Vasodilation and its resulting increased blood flow causes the redness and increased heat, increased permeability of the blood vessels results in an exudation of plasma proteins and fluid into the tissue, which manifests itself as swelling. Some of the released mediators such as increase the sensitivity to pain 10. – Most health encounters will result in some form of history being taken. Medical histories vary in their depth and focus, for example, an ambulance paramedic would typically limit their history to important details, such as name, history of presenting complaint, allergies, etc. In contrast, a history is frequently lengthy and in depth. The information obtained in this way, together with the examination, enables the physician and other health professionals to form a diagnosis. If a diagnosis cannot be made, a diagnosis may be formulated. The treatment plan may include further investigations to clarify the diagnosis. A practitioner typically asks questions to obtain the information about the patient, Identification and demographics, name, age. The chief complaint – the major problem or concern. History of the present illness – details about the complaints, enumerated in the CC, review of systems Systematic questioning about different organ systems Family diseases – especially those relevant to the patients chief complaint. Childhood diseases – this is important in pediatrics. Regular and acute medications Allergies – to medications, food, latex, and other environmental factors Sexual history, obstetric/gynecological history, conclusion & closure History-taking may be comprehensive history taking or iterative hypothesis testing. Computerized history-taking could be a part of clinical decision support systems. Whatever system a specific condition may seem restricted to, all the systems are usually reviewed in a comprehensive history. The review of systems often includes all the systems in the body that may provide an opportunity to mention symptoms or concerns that the individual may have failed to mention in the history. Factors that inhibit a proper medical history taking include physical inability of the patient to communicate with the physician, such as unconsciousness, Medical history taking may also be impaired by various factors impeding a proper doctor-patient relationship, such as transitions to physicians that are unfamiliar to the patient. History taking of issues related to sexual or reproductive medicine may be inhibited by a reluctance of the patient to disclose intimate or uncomfortable information, computer-assisted history taking systems have been available since the 1960s. However, their use remains variable across healthcare delivery systems, one advantage of using computerized systems as an auxiliary or even primary source of medically related information is that patients may be less susceptible to social desirability bias. For example, patients may be likely to report that they have engaged in unhealthy lifestyle behaviors.
0 Comments
Leave a Reply. |
AuthorWrite something about yourself. No need to be fancy, just an overview. Archives
February 2018
Categories |